Human Anatomy & Physiology


Anatomy and Physiology     -   Open Stax Homepage

Summary - Anatomy and Physiology - is a dynamic textbook for the two-semester human anatomy and physiology course for life science and allied health majors. The book is organized by body system and covers standard scope and sequence requirements. Its lucid text, strategically constructed art, career features, and links to external learning tools address the critical teaching and learning challenges in the course. The web-based version of Anatomy and Physiology also features links to surgical videos, histology, and interactive diagrams.


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  1. Preface
  2.  Part 1 - Levels of Organization
    1.  An Introduction to the Human Body
      1. Introduction
      2. 1.1 - Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
      3. 1.2 - Structural Organization of the Human Body
      4. 1.3 - Functions of Human Life
      5. 1.4 - Requirements for Human Life
      6. 1.5 - Homeostasis
      7. 1.6 - Anatomical Terminology
      8. 1.7 - Medical Imaging
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
    2.  Chapter 2 - The Chemical Level of Organization
      1. Introduction
      2. 2.1 - Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter
      3. 2.2 - Chemical Bonds
      4. 2.3 - Chemical Reactions
      5. 2.4 - Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
      6. 2.5 - Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    3.  Chapter 3 - The Cellular Level of Organization
      1. Introduction
      2. 3.1 - The Cell Membrane
      3. 3.2 - The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
      4. 3.3 - The Nucleus and DNA Replication
      5. 3.4 - Protein Synthesis
      6. 3.5 - Cell Growth and Division
      7. 3.6 - Cellular Differentiation
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    4.  Chapter 4 - The Tissue Level of Organization
      1. Introduction
      2. 4.1 - Types of Tissues
      3. 4.2 - Epithelial Tissue
      4. 4.3 - Connective Tissue Supports and Protects
      5. 4.4Muscle Tissue and Motion
      6. 4.5Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response
      7. 4.6Tissue Injury and Aging
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
  3.  Part 2 - Support and Movement
    1.  Chapter 5 - The Integumentary System
      1. Introduction
      2. 5.1 - Layers of the Skin
      3. 5.2 - Accessory Structures of the Skin
      4. 5.3 - Functions of the Integumentary System
      5. 5.4 - Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Review
      8. Interactive Link Questions
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
    2.  Chapter 6 - Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System
      1. Introduction
      2. 6.1 - The Functions of the Skeletal System
      3. 6.2 - Bone Classification
      4. 6.3 - Bone Structure
      5. 6.4 - Bone Formation and Development
      6. 6.5 - Fractures: Bone Repair
      7. 6.6 - Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue
      8. 6.7 - Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    3.  Chapter 7 - Axial Skeleton
      1. Introduction
      2. 7.1 - Divisions of the Skeletal System
      3. 7.2 - The Skull
      4. 7.3 - The Vertebral Column
      5. 7.4 - The Thoracic Cage
      6. 7.5 - Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    4.  Chapter 8 - The Appendicular Skeleton
      1. Introduction
      2. 8.1 - The Pectoral Girdle
      3. 8.2 - Bones of the Upper Limb
      4. 8.3 - The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
      5. 8.4 - Bones of the Lower Limb
      6. 8.5 - Development of the Appendicular Skeleton
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    5.  Chapter 9 - Joints
      1. Introduction
      2. 9.1 - Classification of Joints
      3. 9.2 - Fibrous Joints
      4. 9.3 - Cartilaginous Joints
      5. 9.4 - Synovial Joints
      6. 9.5 - Types of Body Movements
      7. 9.6 - Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints
      8. 9.7 - Development of Joints
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
    6.  Chapter 10 - Muscle Tissue
      1. Introduction
      2. 10.1 - Overview of Muscle Tissues
      3. 10.2 - Skeletal Muscle
      4. 10.3 - Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation
      5. 10.4 - Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
      6. 10.5 - Types of Muscle Fibers
      7. 10.6 - Exercise and Muscle Performance
      8. 10.7 - Cardiac Muscle Tissue
      9. 10.8 - Smooth Muscle
      10. 10.9 - Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue
      11. Key Terms
      12. Chapter Review
      13. Interactive Link Questions
      14. Review Questions
      15. Critical Thinking Questions
    7.  Chapter 11 - The Muscular System
      1. Introduction
      2. 11.1 - Skeletal Muscles, Fascicle Arrangement & Lever Systems
      3. 11.2 - Naming Skeletal Muscles
      4. 11.3 - Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back
      5. 11.4 - Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, and Thorax
      6. 11.5 - Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs
      7. 11.6 - Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
  4.  Part 3 - Regulation, Integration, and Control
    1.  Chapter 12 - The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
      1. Introduction
      2. 12.1 - Basic Structure and Function of the Nervous System
      3. 12.2 - Nervous Tissue
      4. 12.3 - The Function of Nervous Tissue
      5. 12.4 - The Action Potential
      6. 12.5 - Communication Between Neurons
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    2.  Chapter 13 - Anatomy of the Nervous System
      1. Introduction
      2. 13.1 - The Embryologic Perspective
      3. 13.2 - The Central Nervous System
      4. 13.3 - Circulation and the Central Nervous System
      5. 13.4 - The Peripheral Nervous System
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Review
      8. Interactive Link Questions
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
    3.  Chapter 14 - The Somatic Nervous System
      1. Introduction
      2. 14.1 - Sensory Perception
      3. 14.2 - Central Processing
      4. 14.3 - Motor Responses
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Review
      7. Interactive Link Questions
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
    4.  Chapter 15 - The Autonomic Nervous System
      1. Introduction
      2. 15.1 - Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
      3. 15.2 - Autonomic Reflexes and Homeostasis
      4. 15.3 - Central Control
      5. 15.4 - Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Review
      8. Interactive Link Questions
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
    5.  Chapter 16 - The Neurological Exam
      1. Introduction
      2. 16.1 - Overview of the Neurological Exam
      3. 16.2 - The Mental Status Exam
      4. 16.3 - The Cranial Nerve Exam
      5. 16.4 - The Sensory and Motor Exams
      6. 16.5 - The Coordination and Gait Exams
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    6.  Chapter 17 - The Endocrine System
      1. Introduction
      2. 17.1 - An Overview of the Endocrine System
      3. 17.2 - Hormones
      4. 17.3 - The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
      5. 17.4 - The Thyroid Gland
      6. 17.5 - The Parathyroid Glands
      7. 17.6 - The Adrenal Glands
      8. 17.7 - The Pineal Gland
      9. 17.8 - Gonadal and Placental Hormones
      10. 17.9 - The Endocrine Pancreas
      11. 17.10 - Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
      12. 17.11 - Development and Aging of the Endocrine System
      13. Key Terms
      14. Chapter Review
      15. Interactive Link Questions
      16. Review Questions
      17. Critical Thinking Questions
  5.  Part 4 - Fluids and Transport
    1.  Chapter 18 - The Cardiovascular System: Blood
      1. Introduction
      2. 18.1 - An Overview of Blood
      3. 18.2 - Production of the Formed Elements
      4. 18.3 - Erythrocytes
      5. 18.4 - Leukocytes and Platelets
      6. 18.5 - Hemostasis
      7. 18.6 - Blood Typing
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    2.  Chapter 19 - The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
      1. Introduction
      2. 19.1 - Heart Anatomy
      3. 19.2 - Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
      4. 19.3 - Cardiac Cycle
      5. 19.4Cardiac Physiology
      6. 19.5 - Development of the Heart
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    3.  Chapter 20 - Blood Vessels and Circulation
      1. Introduction
      2. 20.1 - Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
      3. 20.2 - Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance
      4. 20.3 - Capillary Exchange
      5. 20.4 - Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System
      6. 20.5 - Circulatory Pathways
      7. 20.6 - Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    4.  Chapter 21 - The Lymphatic and Immune System
      1. Introduction
      2. 21.1 - Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems
      3. 21.2 - Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response
      4. 21.3 - The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types
      5. 21.4 - The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies
      6. 21.5 - The Immune Response against Pathogens
      7. 21.6 - Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
     Part 5 - Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange
    1.  Chapter 22 - The Respitory System
      1. Introduction
      2. 22.1 - Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
      3. 22.2 - The Lungs
      4. 22.3 - The Process of Breathing
      5. 22.4 - Gas Exchange
      6. 22.5 - Transport of Gases
      7. 22.6 - Modifications in Respitory Functions
      8. 22.7 - Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
    2.  Chapter 23 - The Digestive System
      1. Introduction
      2. 23.1 - Overview of the Digestive System
      3. 23.2 - Digestive Systems & Regulation
      4. 23.3 - The Mouth Pharnynx & Esophagus
      5. 23.4 - The Stomach
      6. 23.5 - The Small & Large Intestines
      7. 23.6 - Accessory Organs; Liver, Pancreas, & Gallbladder
      8. 23.7 - Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
    3.  Chapter 24 - The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
      1. Introduction
      2. 24.1 - Overview of Metabolic Reactions
      3. 24.2 - Carbohydrate Metabolism
      4. 24.3 - Lipid Metabolism
      5. 24.4Protein Metabolism
      6. 24.5 - Metabolic States of the Body
      7. 24.6 - Energy & Heat Balance
      8. 24.7 - Nutrition & Diet
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    4.  Chapter 25 - The Urinary System
      1. Introduction
      2. 25.1 - Physical Characteristics of Urine
      3. 25.2 - Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
      4. 25.3 - Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
      5. 25.4 - Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
      6. 25.5 - Physiology of Urine Formation
      7. 25.6 - Tubular Reabsorption
      8. 25.7 - Regulation of Renal Blood Flow
      9. 25.8 - Endocrine Regulatio of Kidney Function
      10. 25.9 - Regulation of Fluid Volume & Composition
      11. 25.10 - The Urinary System & Homostasis
      12. Key Terms
      13. Chapter Review
      14. Interactive Link Questions
      15. Review Questions
      16. Critical Thinking Questions
    5.  Chapter 26 - Fluid, Electrolyte, & Acid Base Balance
      1. Introduction
      2. 26.1 - Body Fluids & Fluid Compartments
      3. 26.2 - Water Balance
      4. 26.3 - Electrolyte Balance
      5. 26.4 - Acid-Base Balance
      6. 26.5 - Disorders of Acid-Base Balance
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
     Part 6 - Human Development and the Continuity of Life
    1.  Chapter 27 - The Reproductive System
      1. Introduction
      2. 27.1 - Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
      3. 27.2 - Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
      4. 27.3 - Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Review
      7. Interactive Link Questions
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
    2.  Chapter 28 - Development & Inheritance
      1. Introduction
      2. 28.1 - Fertilization
      3. 28.2 - Embryonic Development
      4. 28.3 - Fetal Development
      5. 28.4Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth
      6. 28.5 - Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages
      7. 28.6 - Lactation
      8. 28.7 - Patterns of Inheritance
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
  6. References
  7. Index

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  1. Physiology Introduction
  2. Homeostasis
  3. Cell Physiology
  4. Integumentary System
  5. The Nervous System
  6. Senses
  7. The Muscular System
  8. Blood Physiology
  9. The Cardiovascular System
  10. The Immune System
  11. The Urinary System
  12. The Respiratory System
  13. The Gastrointestinal System
  14. Nutrition
  15. The Endocrine System
  16. The Male Reproductive System
  17. The Female Reproductive System
  18. Pregnancy and Birth
  19. Genetics and Inheritance
  20. Development: Birth through Death
  21. Appendix 1: Answers to Review Questions
  22. Authors
  23. Further Reading

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